Sumatran Elephant
Estimated population 2400 – 2800 total Elephas,maximus,sumatranus Height: 6’ 6” – 10’ 5” Weight: 4,400 lbs – 8,800 lbs Speed: 43 km/27 mph Gestation: 18 – 22 months Wean: 4 – 5 years Sexual maturity: 10 -16 years
20 pairs of ribs Non ruminated Endangered. Biggest threats: Oil palm plantation poisoning, altered riverside corridors, snares, Lantana bush
Compared to Sri Lankan & Indian elephants, Sumatrans are considerably lighter with minimum depigmentation marks on body. Females are shorter and even lighter in color than the males. Also female sumatrans have “tushes” like a mini tusk barely visible past lip line. Sumatran male tusks are overall shorter than the other Asians. Sumatran skin overall Bald and Smoother than African counterparts. Sumatrans also use mud baths to protect skin. *Trunk up to 60,000 muscles, vs 150,00 muscles in African trunk?
Sumatrans consume up to 330# (150 kg) of roots, grasses, fruits,(bananas, papaya, sugar cane), roots, bark, stems, coconut shoots and liana daily. Sumatrans can process 5% – 10% of approx. 300 lbs. of daily food intake and drop approx. 110 lbs dung daily.
Many domestic Sumatran elephants have been recorded living up to 75+ years. While in the wild, may live to approximately 60 yrs in the wild. Sumatrans need minimum home range of 20 square kilometers/d. Also studies have estimated an 80% population loss of this keystone species, mainly due to, hunting & high habitat fragmentation by invading Palm oil plantations. The Sumatran Asian-subspecies elephant distributed on the Island of Sumatra is listed as a critically endangered species.
2022 Seblat Natural Eco Tourism Park genetic study was to use mitochondrial cytochrome b gene to analyze the genetic relationship of all 11 elephants in the park. Based on the mtDNA cytochrome b gene findings of low genetic diversity among the Sumatran Park elephant population.
Article in Malaysian Applied Biology, Oct. 2022
Indicated by 99%-100% sequence similarity among elephant samples. Phylogenic analysis showed that all elephants are in the same clade, and have a close relationship with Borneo elephants. Additionally, there were only two haplotypes in the Sumatran population. Low genetic diversity Indicates the necessity of a strategic breeding program to be initiated as an emergency action to prevent extinction.
Forest elephants are migratory. Most of the elephants natural migration routes are along the river. Much of the river side forest of Sumatra has been cut away to make way for oil palm plantations. These have surely blocked some of their natural routes.
Leuser Sumatran Rain Forest elephant population approx. 2,400, scattered across 25 different populations. One elephant corridor remains along the Tamiang river. Herds up 25-30 have been seen with increased activity between 2 hrs before late afternoon to 2 hrs before dawn. Grazing and browsing up to 16-18 hrs daily. Birthing usually at night. Top speed 43 k/h (27 mph). Males walk up to 110 km/d (68 miles/day).
Digestive Track
Birth: 1st & 2nd true molars in each side of the jaw, upper/lower, as well as small milk “tushes” teeth in upper mouth. Which will later grow to be tusks.
1st molar set fallout by 2nd year of life. (4 ridges)
2nd slightly larger molar set by 3-4 ears old (8 ridges)
3rd set, slightly larger, molar set until 10 yrs (12 ridges)
4th set, slightly larger, molar set until 25 years (16 ridges)
5th set, slightly larger, molar set until 45 years (20 ridges)
6th set, slightly enlarged again, another 20 years. (24 ridges). Up to 15.76 inches.
Some elephants in captivity have been recorder to live to 80 yrs. In an elephant outlives their teeth, their zoo life will probably be extended more so than in the wild.
Visually inspect mouth & teeth everyday w toothbrush. Make sure elephant is able to keep mouth of prolonged debris. Ensure proper high fibers. Hard tac, palm leaves, bamboo, etc.
Elephant & Hydrax tusks develop from incisor teeth, whereas other mammal teeth develop from canine teeth.
Salivary amalase: enzyme that breaks down starches in food (chemical digestion) into smaller sugar subunits.
Salivary Lysozyme kills bacteria by attacking the cell wall causing it to rupture and bacteria to die.
Little to no salivary peroxidase, a protein based anti-microbial enzyme.
Max capacity (asian female) stomach 76.6 liters (81.20 qts).
- Mechanical & enzyme digestion in mouth, mastication by 4 molars located in back of mouth. 2 top, 2 bottom. Up to 6 sets throughout lifetime. Tusk incisors grow throughout lifetime, used to scrape/dig bark & roots etc. No other front “teeth”. Tongue (up to 12 lbs#) short & attached completely to bottom of mouth.
2. Food bolus mixed with saliva enzymes from side pouches and Pharyngeal Diverticulum (hold up to 4 liters of fluid), in the soft palate at the Pharynx opening, then swallowed. This Pharyngeal Diverticulum communicates with oesophagus as bolus is swallowed into esophagus on way to stomach.
3. Stomach swallowed thru oesophagus, to x 4 compartments:
1st…Rumen, food eaten may stay in rumen up to 24 hrs
2nd…Reticulum, bolus further broken down
3rd…Omasum, bolus further mixed with digestive juices and saliva, further breakdown
4th…Abomasum, bolus mixes more enzymes & acids to travel to the intestines
4. Small Intestine: 75.5 (±2 ft) feet long; Duodenum, Jejunum, illeum: Absorbs nutrients from bolus and bile secretions via duodenal papilla, from the liver and enzymes from pancreas via intramural pouch attached to all 3 organs. Bile enhances lipid absorption throughout intestines. Proteins, starches and sugars digested in the appendix, 5 ft long.
5. Cecum: (Approx 90 in or 7.5 ft) 12% of body weight. Extends from the junction of the ileum to the colon. Holds bolus’ here to create fermentative bacteria & digestive enzymes. This is known as hind gut digestion.
6. Large Intestine: 21 ft (±) long; Further mushes down bolus & extracts water with peristalysis & segmentation. Carbs & proteins are absorbed back to pancreas.
7. Rectum: 13 feet long; Compresses & evacuates waste. Entire digestion processs 36-50 hrs. Up to 150-200 lbs dung daily, adult females.
Also, elephant dung carries and deposits many of the seeds of the foodstuffs that it eats. 9 of 10 elephant dung tested had seed deposited with it. In Africa, the Makore’ wood apple tree is found only along elephant routes. This tree ignored by other animals because of it tough nature.
Elephant Stomach
Endocrine cells produce and release hormones into the bloodstream. In elephants these cells are immunno reactive to Peptide YY (PYY). Function unknown.
Elephants lack a gall bladder. Instead, bile is secreted through multiple ducts and passes through to the intestine via intramural pouch that connects to bile and pancreatic ducts, which opens up into duodenal canal via papilla. The bible functions to enhance lipid absorption throughout the intestine.
Asians digest approximately 40 – 50% of the forage the consume. African digestion may be as low as 22% depending on the quality of forage. (maybe due to Asians having a lusher environment?
80% of time is spent feeding & consume 1.5-2% of body weight daily.
Mean retention rate/digestion time: Asian 26.6 hrs VS African 22.8 hrs.
Domestication & Exhibition
Indoor AZA Standards 2020
Indoor spaces must provide adequate space to move about and lie down without restriction. Also enough space to allow separation by individual stalling or tethers. Housing for both female and male must be able to accommodate up to 24 feet. All ceiling and fixtures must be put of reach or adequately protected.
Minimum recommended stall space is no less than 600 sq ft for males & females with calves, or 400 sq ft for single females. Minimum recommended for outdoor habitat is no less 5,400 sq ft per elephant. Elephant standards are: 3 females/2 males, or 3 elephants of mixed gender.
Adequate infrastructure to manage care, with barriers in place that protect employees. Habitat Exhibit to maximize exercise & socialization, as well as provide solitude when desired. accommodate male with procedures that minimize need for tethering. Exhibits stimulate, promote & perpetuate species apronriate behavior. Outdoor areas should encourage walking, and provide a substrate surface for natural footwear, as well as stimulate natural grazing & browsing. Tree stump, boulders should be place strategically to be used as visual landmarks/barriers, scratching/rubbing posts. There should also be exhibit “furniture” to provide shade, entertainment.
Elephant set should also include a variety of substrates, as well as wet & dry wallows to promote skin care. A comprehensive enrichment program including but not limited to: exercise opportunities, social & cognitive enrichment.
I personally would add an intellectual enrichment program as well.
The key to healthy happy elephants and the ability to treat appropriately or extensively if need be, relies on the ability to healthcare and treatment. The depth of our ability, relies on the depth of our access.
Fully Domestic vs Semi Domestic; Article: Biodiveritas Journal of Biologic Diversity, July 2021
At an elephant training center est. 2002 by the Sumatran government, It was noticed that some of the problematic elephants were actually trained elephants from different local economic industries (logging, agriculture, tourism). Elephant training centers established near conflicts zones to prevent human-elephant conflict. Trained domesticated elephants are used in this project.
Indonesia has two types of facilities:
- Elephant conservation centers (ECC) : Government owned. ECCs implement semi-domestic management
- Zoos : Public sector. Implement complete domestic management.
Government ECCs differ in that after the daily activities (public interactions, medical checks, etc.) they offer “free choice activity” time out in the forest under the supervision of a mahout and without further imposition for remainder of the day. This allows elephants ability to explore and interact with their natural environment and browse unrestricted. These activities are crucial to the elephants welfare and cognitive stimulation.
Using anthropometric measurements to predict weight in elephants
A study comparing 49 elephants, over age 15 yrs: 14 male and 35 female; 25 from ECC vs 24 from Gembria Loka Zoo Borobudur park & safari, Sumatra.
5 parameters of measurement taken:
(CG) Chest Girth: Taken from behind forelegs to the front chest middle.
(BH) Body Height: From withers (scapula) to ground. Used extension pole and marking directly.
(BL) Body Length: From base of neck to fold of tail.
(CC) Carpal circumference (front feet) : started / ended measurement at center front of each front foot.
(TC) Tarsal circumference (back feet) : started / ended measurement at center front of each back foot.
Comparisons between the (BL) body lengths showed to be significantly greater in the male & female ECC elephants vs the Zoo elephants, who’s (BL) was significantly less. This may reflect linear growth stimulated more by more stretching and reaching demands during wild browsing & grazing in wide open spaces. Significant differences in (CG) between the ECC & Zoos. With the semi managed elephants (ECC) having a greater chest girth over the fully managed elephants (Zoos). (TC) measurements showed no significant size difference between zoo males & females vs ECC males & females. (BH) slightly elevated among the zoo elephants over the ECC elephants. (CC) measurements of zoo females greater overall (and starting out slightly larger),ECC females as well as ECC males & zoo males.
Studies of Chapman et al 2017/Hile et al 1997 concluded that there was not one single equation based on measurement that was ideal for all age groups.
Kurt & Garai equation (2007) useful for infant elephants under 6 years. Anthropometric & blood data taken from (1) Calf – Human hand raised (unsuccessful) and (1) Calf – allmother raised (successful). “Hand” calf grew normal in terms of weight & withers. Biochemical blood data suggested reduced bone metabolism, low immune status and malnutrition during it’s short lifetime. Blood/bone markers were measured to determine wether a skeletal disorder was present in the calf, that was not clear from the anthropometric data. It was concluded that blood/bone monitoring and maintenance of these parameters may be the key to successfully raising calves consistent.
Sumatran Male
Elephas,maximus,sumatranus
Male 15+ years Height Range: 7.7 – 8.2 feet (withers) Length Range: 9.3 – 10.4 feet (base of neck to fold of tail) Weight Range: 7,000 – 9,800 lbs
Sexual Maturity: 10 – 12 years. Body height growth slows after sexual maturity for both sexes. 85 – 90% of males body growth completed by 15 years. 95% of body height achieved by 21 years. The males body weight growth rate accelerates after puberty period and continues to accrue weight. This post puberty growth spurt results in males being generally taller and almost 2x weight difference. Males generally larger than females in every parameter EXCEPT Carpal circumference. Backs of males more convex. Females exhibit more level back.
Sumatran Female
Female 16+ years Height Range: 6.8 – 7.3 feet (withers) Length Range: 9 – 10.2 feet (base of neck to fold of tail) Weight Range: 4,400 – 5,500 lbs
Sexual Maturity: 16 years, peak fecundity at 19 yrs. Body height growth slows after sexual maturity for both sexes. 95% of females body growth completed by 15-16 years. Backs of males more convex. Females exhibit more level back.
Newborn Infant: approx 200lbs. Birthing is approx. 10 seconds and usually at night. Calf able to stand 10 – 30 minuets after birth. Calves suckle approx 3 years, weaned by 4-5 years. Cow will not breed again until 1st calf is weaned. Females stop reproducing after 60.
- Allele: One of two or more versions of DNA sequence (at a single base or at a segment of bases) at a given genomic location.
- Cytochrome b gene: a gene in the mitochondrial genome that encodes a key component protein of mitochondria. This is one of the steps in producing adenosine triphosphate: main energy source produced for cells.
- Cytoplasm: intracellular fluid that surrounds the nucleus of a cell.
- D.N.A.: “deoxribonucleic acid” a molecule found in biological organisms that contain the genetic instructions
- for development and functioning & reproduction. Passed down from parents to offspring.
- Heterozygous allele: different versions of a gene inherited from both parents.
- Homozygous allele: identical versions of a gene inherited from both parents.
- mtD.N.A.: a small amount of DNA that can be found in the mitochondrial organelles in the cytoplasm of cells.
- The mitochondria organelles (micro organs) are responsible for the cells energy production, and other metabolic functions. Mitochondrial DNA is a maternally inherited marker, which has been successfully employed as a human identifier since 1996. mtDNA also yields good results in degraded samples that fail to generate successful nuclear DNA (nuDNA) profiles. mtDNA also has a crucial role in human aging. Thus an excellent marker for age estimation
- Phylogenics: a study of how organisms are related to each other thru their evolutionary history and genetic material. Includes study of evolutionary relationships between species, individuals and genes often referred to as the taxa. Uses DNA and RNA sequencing.
- R.N.A.; Ribonucleic acid: a nucleic acid present in all living cells. Role: messenger; carries instructions from DNA to control synthesis of proteins.