LOXODONTA AFRICANA
Female, Large, 35 yrs
Teeth
Birth: 1st & 2nd true molars in each side of the jaw, upper/lower, as well as small milk “tushes” teeth in upper mouth. Which will later grow to be tusks.
1st molar set fallout by 2nd year of life. (4 ridges)
2nd slightly larger molar set by 3-4 ears old (8 ridges)
3rd set, slightly larger, molar set until 10 yrs (12 ridges)
4th set, slightly larger, molar set until 25 years (16 ridges)
5th set, slightly larger, molar set until 45 years (20 ridges)
6th set, slightly enlarged again, another 20 years. (24 ridges)
Some elephants in captivity have been recorder to live to 80 yrs. In an elephant outlives their teeth, their zoo life will probably be extended more so than in the wild.
Visually inspect mouth & teeth everyday w toothbrush. Make sure elephant is able to keep mouth of prolonged debris. Ensure proper high fibers. Hard tac, palm leaves, bamboo, etc.
Trunk
Trunk with 150,000 sub-units of muscles
Behavior and innervation suggest a high tactile sensitivity of elephant trunks. To clarify the tactile trunk periphery, we studied whiskers using the following findings. Whisker density is high at the trunk tip, and African savanna elephants have more trunk tip whiskers than Asian elephants. Adult elephants show striking lateralized whisker abrasion caused by lateralized trunk behavior. Elephant whiskers are thick and show little tapering. Whisker follicles are large, lack a ring sinus and their organization varies across the trunk. Follicles are innervated by ~90 axons from multiple nerves. Because elephants don’t whisk, trunk movements determine whisker contacts. Whisker arrays on the ventral trunk-ridge contact objects balanced on the ventral trunk. Trunk whiskers differ from the mobile, thin, and tapered facial whiskers that sample peri-rostrum space symmetrically in many mammals. We suggest their distinctive features—being thick, non-tapered, lateralized, and arranged in specific high-density arrays—evolved along with the manipulative capacities of the trunk.
The trunk is a fusion of the nose and upper lip and comprises approximately 150,000 sub-units of muscles. Although the trunk serves an obvious role in the acquisition of food and water, it is also extremely important for the tactile investigation of the environment, olfaction, and vomer olfaction. The tip of the trunk houses two types of vibrissal hairs, small corpuscles and free nerve endings. These features allow the trunk tip to detect vibrations, finely manipulate objects, and transfer liquids.
See article at Communications Biology (https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-023-04945-5)
Within the nasal cavity are seven turbinals (dogs have only five), scrolls of bones with sensitive tissues specialized for olfaction and hormone detection. These turbinates contain millions of olfactory receptor cells. When a male is in musth or a female is in estrus, elephants can detect hormones or chemical molecules in the urine, feces, and secretions from the temporal glands, trunk, and mouth that mirror the individual’s physiological state.
An elephant may be able to gain enough information simply by sniffing, if not the elephant will collect the substance on the tip of trunk. Once collected on the trunk, this chemical information is passed on to the Jacobson’s or vomeronasal organ on the roof of the mouth for further analysis. This type of behavior is known as the flehmen response. Information thus gained is then conveyed to the brain. In front of the Jacobson’s organ is a tiny row of pores known as palatal pits. These pores may also serve to enhance chemical communication by deciphering molecular information brought to the trunk for inspection.
Sometimes, an elephant may be seen to flatten the tip of the trunk over a spot of urine on the ground, forming a seal over the material of interest. The elephant may then inhale and then blow on the substance, presumably warming it so that more volatile compounds will be released from the liquid matrix.
LINKS REGARDING: POSSIBLE ELEPHANT MILK SUBSTITUTION
Zoological Lactation Study LINKS:
Elephant Milk Studies
Characterization of African elephant beta-casein and its relevance to the chemistry of caseins and casein micelles
“….African elephant milk lacks αS-caseins with β-casein as the major component of its milk (Madende et al., 2015). Similar to African elephant milk, human milk also lacks αS2-casein, contains low levels of αS1-caseins, and constitutes a high β-casein content. The study of milk with unique composition and casein properties and quantities, such as human milk, has shed more light on casein properties and their technological applications as ingredients in functional foods (Kunz & Lönnerdal, 1990). Similarly, the study of non-dairy novel species that have a unique protein composition, such as African elephant milk, has the potential to unravel some of the less understood properties of milk, such as the casein micelle structure (Holt, 2016, Madende et al., 2015)…..”
REFERENCE:
Moses Madende a, Gabre Kemp a, Stoyan Stoychev b, Gernot Osthoff a
aDepartment of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa
bBiosciences, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
(October 2018). Characterization of African elephant beta-casein and its relevance to the chemistry of caseins and casein micelles. Significant advancements in dairy science and technologies are published by Science Direct, including papers by the International Dairy Journal. Note “International Dairy Journal does not publish papers related to milk production, animal health and other aspects of on-farm milk production unless there is a clear relationship to dairy technology, human health or final product quality.” – IDJ. SCIENCE DIRECT ONLINE PUBLICATION BY ELSEVIER/INTERNATIONAL DAIRY JOURNAL, Vol 85, pp 112-120.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0958694618301419
What is the difference between A1 Milk, A2 Milk and Buffalo Milk?
“The main difference between A1 and A2 milk is the type of beta-casein protein found in the milk, which is determined by the genes of the cow that produced the milk”
A1 milk
Contains A1 beta-casein, which is found in milk from cows that originated in northern Europe.
A2 milk
Contains only A2 beta-casein, which is found in milk from cows that originated in the Channel Islands and southern France.
The A1 and A2 proteins are almost identical, differing only in the 67th amino acid in the chain. A1 has a histidine amino acid, while A2 has a proline amino acid. This difference can cause the body to process A1 and A2 milk differently, which may impact digestion and other health factors:
Digestion
Some studies suggest that A2 milk may be easier to digest and less likely to cause bloating and indigestion.
Inflammation
One study found that participants had higher levels of inflammatory markers in their blood after drinking regular milk.
Brain function
Another study found that participants took longer to process information and made more errors on a test after drinking regular milk.
Heart disease
Some research suggests that consuming A1 protein is associated with a higher risk for heart disease.
REFERENCE:
AUMILK DAIRY ONLINE. (March 6, 2023).”Buffalo Milk, Sheep Milk, Goat Milk, Camel Milk, and, in fact, Human Milk is A2, whereas Cow Milk can either be A1 or A2 based on the breed. Aumilk is a sincere attempt to bring the Original A2 Milk back to the dining table.” – AuMilk Dairy.
Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation
Analysis of A1-type and A2-type β-casein in Maiwa Yak
“The method was applied to analyze 45 milk samples from different species. The results showed that β-casein in Yak and Pien-niu milk was about 30% higher than that in cow milk. Furthermore, the β-casein in the Yak milk only contains A2-type β-casein. A1-type and A2-type β-casein coexist in most samples of Pien-niu and cow milk; a few samples contain only one type of β-casein. These results provide further understanding of the nutritional value of milk from Yak and Pien-Niu.”
REFERENCE:
Dierenfeld, E. S., Han, Y. A. M., Mar, K. U., Aung, A., Soe, A. T., Lummaa, V., & Lahdenperä, M. (2020).
Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation. “…Milk composition averaged 82.44% water, with 17.56% total solids containing 5.23% protein, 15.10% fat, 0.87% ash, and 0.18 µg/mL vitamin E. Solids and protein increased with lactation month. Total protein in milk was higher during the wet vs. dry season. Observed factors linked with maternal (age, parity, size, and origin) and calf traits (sex) had significant associations with milk nutrient levels. Primary forages consumed contained moderate protein and fiber. Higher dietary protein during the wet season (11-25%) compared to the dry season (6-19%) may be linked with increased milk protein observed”
Animals: an open access journal from MDPI, 10(4), 725.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10040725
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7222762
Hygiene
Daily & Monthly Schedules
Daily: Hose down any nite house debris with warm water &: friendly soap, oatmeal soap water. Steam shower if available. Once over with stiff, push broom & rinse. Overhead & scrubbing blocks should be provided for elephants to self-scrub as well. A soft wire brush can be used to clean feet as needed. As well as the topmost part of the back. This area is to be debrided of dead skin as needed.
Nails: Calf/Juvenile: Visually inspect every day. Use hoof rasp if necessary. Do not let nails touch the ground as this makes nails prone to splits. Pedicure every 4-6 months. Depending on nail wear. Trim, smooth, clean, finish protect coating.
5th year & up : Nails should be attended to quarterly. In addition to regular foot routine, keep space between nails at 3/4 inch (16 mm). This is to avoid rot/fungus between toes/nails as the foot grows bigger.
Dry, loose cuticle is removed with hoof knife. Irregularities should be filed flat. Check for proper wear. If not enough wear on foot bottom, feet should be peeled once a year.
Being able to handle your elephant means you are able to have a mutual working friendship, which also helps prevent elephant boredom. By having the elephant participate in multiple tasks also keeps mental acuity.
Crush cages make it easier and ensure safety for the keeper & elephant. But overall, our animal ambassadors need to be communicated with to ensure future health and safety.
Digestive Tract: Sections & Functions
- Mechanical & enzyme digestion in the mouth, mastication by 4 molars located in the back of the mouth. 2 top, 2 bottoms. Up to 6 sets throughout lifetime. Tusk incisors grow throughout lifetime, used to scrape/dig bark & roots etc. No other front “teeth”. Tongue (up to 12 lbs#) short & attached completely to bottom of mouth.
2. Food bolus mixed with saliva enzymes from side pouches and Pharyngeal Diverticulum (hold up to 4 liters of fluid) in the soft palate at the Pharynx opening, then swallowed. This Pharyngeal Diverticulum communicates with oesophagus as bolus is swallowed into esophagus on way to stomach.
3. Stomach swallowed thru oesophagus, to x 4 compartments:
1st…Rumen, food eaten may stay in rumen up to 24 hrs
2nd…Reticulum, bolus is further broken down
3rd…Omasum, bolus further mixed with digestive juices and saliva, further breakdown
4th…Abomasum, bolus mixes more enzymes & acids to travel to the intestines
4. Small Intestine: 82 feet long; Duodenum, Jejunum, illeum: Absorbs nutrients from bolus and bile secretions via duodenal papilla, from the liver and enzymes from pancreas via intramural pouch attached to all 3 organs. Bile enhances lipid absorption throughout intestines. Proteins, starches and sugars are digested in the appendix, which is 5 ft long.
5. Cecum: Holds bolus’ here to create fermentative bacteria & digestive enzymes.
6. Large Intestine: 21 ft long; Further mushes down bolus & extracts water with peristalysis & segmentation. Carbs & proteins are absorbed back to pancreas
7. Rectum: 13 feet long; Compresses & evacuates waste. Entire digestion process 36-50 hrs. Up to 150-200 lbs dung daily, adult females.
Also, elephant dung carries and deposits many of the seeds of the foodstuffs that it eats. 9 of 10 elephant dung tested had seed deposited with it. In Africa, the Makore’ wood apple tree is found only along elephant routes. This tree is ignored by other animals because of its tough nature.
The Importance of A Controlled Diet
One of the main reasons is to ensure proper nutrition. Also, keeping close track enables back tracing of the diet should a problem arise and helps to identify it by systematically deleting or adding items as needed. Tracking quality is also achieved by food standards. Items outside of elephants’ prescribed diet, I.e., plants, grass, roots of unknown origin, yard scraps & trimmings, landscaping refuse. All food items should come directly from the approved vendor. Any flora grown in habitat set would be verified with a botanist to ensure edible safeness. Elephants will want to snack on all they see; lions don’t care about the shrubbery……maybe scratching…..
Poisonous to Elephants
Not all acacias are created equal….
An acacia on the side of the road may be edible for the elephant, but there is no knowing what this tree has been sprayed with or other variables. Most roadside foliage is put there based on traits that affords them longevity. In example: drought tolerance
Also, for example, the Acacia Koa is native to Hawaii, so is this acacia compatible with elephants?
The Acacia georginae is widely distributed throughout the Queensland area, as well as the Georgina watershed. These “Fluoroacetic” acacia leaves, pods, & seeds shed into the natural fodder and have proved toxic to sheep and cattle. Fluoroacetic plants grow worldwide in different species of plants. It is thought they produced this toxic compound as a deterrent to grazing herbivores.
[LEFT] POISONOUS: Acacia georginae
produces fluoroacetic acid making it very poisonous.
[Right] Acacia cambagei
useful as fodder.
ACACIA PACHYCARPA (Edible)
Appears similar to willow trees, has more of brown-red hues than willow trees. Also found along Bay Area highways for their drought tolerance.
Whistling Ant Thorn Acacia
Large, inflated thorns of the whistling-thorn acacia (Acacia drepanolobium), an African swollen-thorn acacia. In the wild, the thorns are occupied by symbiotic stinging ants of the genus Crematogaster that protect the tree from destructive herbivores. The bulbous thorns are not galls and will develop with or without their symbiotic ant partners.
Monkey Thorn Acacia Senegalia galpini
The monkey thorn (Acacia galpinii ) is a large deciduous tree of Southern and Eastern Africa. A fast-growing, long-lived tree with a maximum height of 30 m, Acacia galpinii is the largest South African acacia. The trunk is 2 m in diameter. The bark is whitish-yellow in young trees and darkens with maturity. Small leaflets are arranged in rows, one on each side a leaf’s midrib, and each of those leaflets is further divided in the same fashion. This gives the leaves of these acacias a delicate, fern-like look. In many varieties from dry areas, though, compound leaves are replaced by flattened leaf stalks, called phyllodes, that look like long, simple leaves. The reduced surface area of a phyllode is an adaptation for conserving water. Even acacias with phyllodes start out with lacy, compound leaves when they are young.
In many acacias, long, sharp thorns hide among the leaves.
For more info, see: Feedipedia at:
San Diego Zoo, Elephant Odyssey
The Last Elephants
Mumby, Hannah.(2020) Pinnock, Don, Bell, Colin,William, Prince, Duke of Cambridge, 1982-compiler. (2019)
481 pages : illustrations, maps ; 26 cm Includes bibliographical references (pages 475-481).San Leandro Library.Books.Adult Non-Fiction.Call Numbers 599.67
https://sanle.ent.sirsi.net/client/en_US/default/search/results?qu=Elephants&rw=24&isd=true
LAST.ISBN: 9781588346636.
Elephants : birth, life and death in the world of the giants.
From early childhood, Dr. Hannah Mumby has loved wildlife, especially elephants.
Student Notebook of R. DeLeon-Bailey 2024